Delivering wildlife habitat on productive agricultural lands cost‐effectively: The case of migratory shorebirds on <scp>C</scp>alifornia rice lands

Promoting wildlife habitat on working agricultural land is a growing conservation priority, and agri-environment schemes are using payments for environmental services (PES) to reach these privately owned lands. PES can be ecologically effective, but also expensive, putting pressure cost-effective, maximizing the value of their limited resources. This study assesses cost-effectiveness four in California that paid rice growers provide temporary flood lands support shorebirds. It examines whether (1) only when needed (targeting); (2) was actually delivered would not otherwise provided (additionality); (3) sacrificed as little possible competed with production (ag/wildlife balance); (4) fostered commitment among maintain after ended (permanence). Results show fell short each goals, they expose several factors undermined cost-effectiveness. First, variable weather patterns altered date which shorebird-habitat gap emerged year-to-year, creating dynamic unpredictable target address. Second, growers' views compatibility varied widely changed rapidly calendar progressed, making it challenge mitigate potential ag/wildlife conflicts. Third, water proved unwilling shoulder expense once ended. These results highlight need adopt design elements add flexibility, such cancelation clauses, so adjust targets adapt changing relationships. suggest operating may require long-term external support. That finding amplifies imperative use resources cost-effectively.